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International Financial Management 6th Edition Chapter 5 Solutions

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International Financial Management Chapter 5 International financial management

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International Financial Management Chapter 5 International financial management

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  1. International Financial ManagementChapter 5 International financial management Michael Connolly School of Business Administration, University of Miami Michael Connolly © 2007 Chapter 5

  2. Summary • Capital structure of the firm • The weighted average cost of borrowing • Cross-listing on foreign stock exchanges • Transfer pricing • International taxation • Working capital • Cash netting • Mergers and acquisitions • Offshore banking • An international business plan • Optimal international investing Chapter 5

  3. Capital structure • There are two ways of financing your firm, by contracting debt (business loans) or issuing equity (shares). • Creditors have senior debt that must be paid or satisfied, except in the case of bankruptcy. Shareholders participate in ownership of the firm, so they share in business risk and risk of bankruptcy. • Due to the greater risk, shareholders typically require a higher rate of return on their equity. Interest payments to creditors are treated as an expense, so they are a "tax shield" for the firm Chapter 5

  4. Capital structure • The cost of capital is thus a weighted average of the after-tax cost of borrowing (D) and the cost of issuing equity (E). where WACC indicates the weighted average cost of capital, the cost of debt, D, the cost of equity, E, and the marginal corporate tax rate. Chapter 5

  5. Capital structure • For example, assume your firm has 30% debt and 70% equity. It can borrow at 10% by selling its corporate bonds, while its shareholders require a 14% return on investment due to a 9.5% market risk premium on your company. • Consequently, the weighted average cost of capital is: • Your firm should use this rate to discount future cash flows. Chapter 5

  6. Capital structure • Due to the tax shield of borrowing and to the low degree of risk to the initial loans, the WACC initially declines with greater financial leverage. • With a high degree of financial leverage approaching one), the risk of financial distress and bankruptcy increase. • This causes both the borrowing rate and the equity rate to rise sharply. Chapter 5

  7. Capital structure • Consequently, there is an optimum capital structure which minimizes the weighted average cost of capital Chapter 5

  8. International capital structure • International capital structure - , the basic rule for conversion of the WACC in dollars to say pounds for purposes of discounting pound cash flows, the interest rate parity rule is: or Chapter 5

  9. International capital structure • If your weighted average cost of capital is 11.05% in USD,Treasuries in the U.K yield 3.0% and in the U.S. 4.5%, your WACC in pounds is: reflecting the lower expected inflation rate in the U.K. • When risk free Treasuries are not available, the expected inflation rates may be substituted for the interest rates: That is use PPP instead of IRP. . Chapter 5

  10. Crosslisting on foreign stock exchanges • Crosslisting on foreign stock exchanges - By crosslisting its shares on foreign stock exchanges - despite additional disclosure, listing and reporting costs - a firm can improve the liquidity of its existing shares by making it easierfor foreign shareholders to acquire shares at home in their own currencies. • Crosslisting may also increase the share price by overcoming mis-pricing in a segmented, illiquid, home capital market. Chapter 5

  11. Transfer pricing • Transfer pricing refers to pricing of the transfer of goods, services, and technology between related units of the firm. It is done both domestically and internationally. The marginal cost of the marketing and the production divisions are summed vertically to yield the marginal cost of the final product. Setting marginal cost of the final product equal to its marginal product yields the profit-maximizing level of production, 100, and a price of $8. Chapter 5

  12. Transfer pricing • To provide the correct incentives to the production division, a transfer price of $3 is optimal. In its production decisions, the production division sets marginal cost equal to $3 to maximize profits, producing exactly the required amount of intermediate inputs. • When there is a possibility to buy or sell the intermediate input externally to other firms at a fixed price, the firm should regard this price as the opportunity cost of the intermediate input. Chapter 5

  13. Transfer pricing • When the market for the intermediate good is not competitive, the marketing division should set a higher transfer price to its internal division, and restrict its purchases slightly from the external market. Profit-maximization requires: Where represents the transfer price, the price at which the firm purchases the input on the external market, and e the elasticity of supply of the intermediate input to the marketing division. Chapter 5

  14. Transfer pricing • Abusive transfer pricing takes place for the main purpose of reducing taxation by shifting profits from high tax to low tax jurisdictions, if not to tax havens. In this example, Stanly Wurks, CT produces a hammer at a marginal cost of $2, sells it for $1, a loss of $1, to the FSC located in a Bahamian tax haven. In turn, Stanly Wurks, Europe pays $5 to the FSC and sells the hammer at $3.75 in Europe, losing $1.25. The IRS could penalize this abuse of transfer pricing. Chapter 5

  15. Transfer pricing • If the production division produces more of the intermediate input than sold to the marketing division and has monopoly power in the market for the intermediate input, its optimal transfer price is below the price at which it sells the intermediate input to the external market. where h is the absolute value of the elasticity of market demand for the intermediate good. Chapter 5

  16. Transfer pricing • For example, if h = 2, the optimum transfer price is 50% below the price at which the intermediate input is sold on the external market. • If the external market were perfectly competitive, h approaches infinity, and the optimal transfer price equals the market price of the intermediate good. Chapter 5

  17. International taxation • The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) governs the tax treatment of branches and subsidiaries located abroad. If a branch or subsidiary is located in a signatory country, it is entitled to "national treatment" - that is, tax and regulatory treatment no less favorable than that accorded to national enterprises. Chapter 5

  18. International taxation • Article III National Treatment on Internal Taxation and Regulation explicitly forbids discrimination against foreign subsidiaries. Consequently, a firm with a foreign subsidiary may appeal any discriminatory treatment to the GATT/WTO in Geneva, Switzerland. Its corporate income tax cannot be higher than that of local companies, it cannot be charged higher duties to import intermediate goods, nor be required to purchase inputs locally to protect domestic production. Chapter 5

  19. International taxation • Income derived from foreign subsidiaries is fully taxable at U.S. rates, but eligible for tax credits on taxes deemed paid abroad up to its marginal tax rate. A tax credit thus typically reduces the tax liability of the parent firm by the full amount paid in foreign taxes. If the foreign corporate rate is above 35%, a deferred tax credit is given on the amount above 35% or is combined with other sources of foreign income less that 35% to reduce the rate to an effective 35%. Chapter 5

  20. International taxation • A foreign sales corporation (FSC) allows firms having export operations to enjoy exemption of most export income from U.S. taxes, even when the good is produced in the U.S. Exempt foreign trade income derives from "export property" sold, leased, or rented outside the United States by the FSC. • Profits not repatriated escape U.S. taxation altogether, in violation of Article VI Anti-Dumping of the GATT/WTO. Chapter 5

  21. International taxation • A foreign majority-controlled branch is treated as part of the parent firm and thus must repatriate profits and pay home taxes contemporaneously. • A subsidiary incorporated locally need not repatriate profits, nor pay home country taxes unless it remits the profits. • Foreign income tax credits apply in both cases. • The value-added tax and sales taxes are deducted from income, and thus treated as expenses. Chapter 5

  22. International taxation: examples • Country A, where the affiliate is located is a high-tax country, so that the home country, assumed to be the U.S., issues an excess tax credit to the parent firm. Chapter 5

  23. International taxation: examples • Country B is a comparable tax country. • No U.S. taxes would be paid, the firm receiving a full tax credit for the 35% corporate income tax. Chapter 5

  24. International taxation: examples • Country C is a low tax country. Chapter 5

  25. International taxation: examples • The tax treatment of affiliates located in Country D, a tax haven. Chapter 5

  26. International taxation: examples • A Foreign Sales Corporation located in a tax haven benefits either from 34% exemption, or 17/23 exemption of foreign source income depending on whether arm's length pricing or administrative rules pricing is applied. The total exemption of foreign possessions source income or possessions derived investment income is also shown. Chapter 5

  27. Working capital • A firm must have operating balances to manage its receivables, inventories and payables. Its net working capital finances the cash conversion cycle from raw inputs to final product and sale. Chapter 5

  28. Cash netting • If subsidiary A must pay 150 euros to subsidiary C for widgets, and C must may A 100 euros for intermediate inputs for assembling widgets, rather than having two separate transactions, subsidiary A (or a centralized facility) can simply pay subsidiary C 50 euros. • The single transaction nets the payment saves the multinational firm transactions and spread fees in its cash operations. Chapter 5

  29. Mergers and acquisitions • A merger is the absorption of one firm by another. Firm A might acquire firm B by offering two shares in A for each share of B. B would then cease to exist. Typically, two thirds of the voting shares of each firm must approve the merger. In general, a merger is only worthwhile is there is synergy in combining the firms: • The value of the merged firm should be greater than the individual firms taken alone. Chapter 5

  30. Mergers and acquisitions • When firm A and firm B consolidate into a new firm C, in general it should be true that: • In practical terms, a consolidation is equivalent to a merger. Chapter 5

  31. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by cash • After the acquisition, the combined firms are worth $170. Synergy is thus $20. Firm A could acquire firm B by paying $60 in cash, a premium of $10 over its market value in order to secure the 2/3 vote necessary of B's shareholders. Each share would be tendered at $6 while it was previously worth $5. Chapter 5

  32. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by cash The value of Firm A after the acquisition will therefore be $170 minus the $60 paid to B's stockholders. A is thus worth $110 after the acquisition, or: Chapter 5

  33. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by shares How many shares should A offer to B's shareholders? The correct amount would equal the ratio: a170 = 60, giving them shares worth $60. That is, a = 60/170 = 0.352941176 of the combined company. and We can solve for the number of new shares issued, , in addition to the exiting number of shares, n = 20. Chapter 5

  34. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by shares • Firm A's situation is now: • The 10.91 shares offered to shareholders of B are worth exactly $60 at the new market price of $5.50! Chapter 5

  35. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by shares and cash • Suppose firm A acquires firm by an offer of both cash and stock, for instance, $30 in cash and the rest in stock. • How many shares of stock will firm A have to offer? Firm A will therefore be worth $140 after the cash payment of $30. In this case a = 30/140 = .21428571429. Chapter 5

  36. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by shares and cash • By offering exactly 5.45455 shares and $30 in cash, Firm A would be offering the same premium as with pure cash or pure stock. Notice that the 5.45455 new shares are worth exactly $30 at the new share price of A, $5.5. Chapter 5

  37. Mergers and acquisitions • Acquisition by shares and cash Firm A's new situation would be as follows: Chapter 5

  38. Alternatives to acquisition ▪ Joint ventures involve local partners who share in the managerial and financial decision-making in the local venture. • Direct licensing agreements and management contracts allow headquarters to share in some of the profits from a locally owned operation. Direct foreign investment should be considered as an alternative. • A strategic alliance takes place when two firms exchange stock and form a separate joint venture to develop and manufacture a product or service. Chapter 5

  39. Offshore banking • Offshore banking refers to deposits and loans that are made in a country other than the depositor's or borrower's country of origin. Chapter 5

  40. Offshore banking • The key differences between offshore banking and domestic banking are the currency of denomination, the tax jurisdiction and the regulatory framework. • For accounts payable and hedging purposes, it is often convenient to hold cash balances in a foreign currency. • In some cases, however, offshore banking is used for money-laundering. Chapter 5

  41. An international business plan • The principal ways of organizing a business are: • A sole proprietorship involves an individual acting on his or her own behalf in a business context. • A partnership formed by the independent action of the partners whose rights and duties are spelled out in business charters. • A limited partnership involves one or more investing partners and at least one operating partner. An investing partner is liable only to the extent of that partner's investment. • A corporation is a single entity, a "person" that may sue or be sued without its members being held liable. Owners may enter or withdraw from the venture at any time by buying or selling shares. Chapter 5

  42. An international business plan • The principal ways of terminating a business are: • Legal bankruptcy (Firms or creditors bring petitions to a court for bankruptcy.) • In Chapter 7, or liquidation cases, the debtor's property is sold off by a trustee to pay the debts owed to creditors. An individual debtor can keep a modest amount of household property or realty under federal or state exemptions. • In Chapter 11, or business reorganization, the business is continued by its management or a trustee while creditors' claims are frozen pending approval of a plan. With court approval, the plan can modify or forgive debts, recapitalize a corporation, provide for mergers or takeovers, or dispose of assets. Chapter 5

  43. An international business plan • The profit-maximizing point:In operations, setting marginal cost (the slope of the cost curve) equal to marginal revenue (the slope of the revenue curve) maximizes profits, p, the difference between revenues and costs. Chapter 5

  44. An international business plan • The net present value of the firm is given by substituting forecasted profits into the NPV formula using the firm's cost of borrowing, i, to discount future cash flows: where T is the terminal value of the firm in its fifth year. The terminal value is an estimate of its resale value based on discounted profits from the sixth year onward. At worst, if the firm ceases operations, it could be its scrap value. Chapter 5

  45. The Aztec Café ▪ Let's take the example of the Aztec Café whose revenues and costs are in Mexican pesos. As a start-up in 2001, its initial investment costs were N$500,000 for the oven and new hood with fire extinguisher, grease trap, tables, chairs and dinnerware, plus renovation of the existing facility. ▪ The owner/manager, Juan Olive had borrowed from a local bank the entire start up amount at 22% in pesos, which gives us the weighted average cost of capital (no equity was brought to the project). ▪ Juan elected straight line depreciation of his investment over five years. Chapter 5

  46. The Aztec Café ▪ Unfortunately, the business plan was done at the end of the Aztec's first year of operations in May 2001. Had it been done earlier, the project would not have taken place. ▪ The Aztec's forecasted revenue and costs yielded a free cash flow projection for five years. In addition, a terminal value was predicted as a no-growth perpetuity of its fifth year's free cash flow. Chapter 5

  47. The Aztec Café ▪In the first year, Juan accumulated arrears in his rent, his loan and in payment of the 15% value-added tax in Mexico. His cash-flow was negative so he sought finance by running arrears. The value of debt arrears had to be subtracted from the net present value of forecasted free-cash flow to value the restaurant. Chapter 5

  48. The Aztec Café ▪ The landlord could padlock the restaurant door at any moment with a court order, and the lender could seize the oven and equipment as secured collateral. The state was about to file criminal charges for tax evasion. The Aztec Café was clearly in serious financial distress. ▪ Could it be sold? No, the restaurant had negative net worth of $46,308. Its forecasted cash flow was also negative. ▪ New equity financing was sought to recapitalize the restaurant and re-pay the loan, rent and tax arrears. Potential investors took the position was that any more money put into the venture would be lost. Chapter 5

  49. The Aztec Café ▪The dénouement ▪ The Aztec Café was liquidated in June 2001. ▪ The owner turned in his keys to the landlord. ▪ The bank took the equipment and sold it in auction. It also required the owner to sell his home, applying the equity to the unpaid balance. It rescheduled the remaining balance and penalties. ▪ Finally, he negotiated forgiveness of the arrears in the value added tax. ▪ Moral of the story: look before you leap! That is, do a reasoned business plan.Also, be wary of high financial leverage, especially 100%. Chapter 5

  50. Optimal international portfolio investment • Market and unique risk • Market risk, also known as systematic risk, represents risk factors that are common to the whole economy. Firm specific risk, also known as diversifiable risk, represent risk factors that can be eliminated by diversification. The variance of security i, , can be written as the sum of the market risk and the firm specific risk: 5.15 where and is the covariance between security i's return and the market return, and is the variance of the market return. Chapter 5

International Financial Management 6th Edition Chapter 5 Solutions

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