Greek Amplitheater Example of Greek Art Spreading During the Hellenistic Period
Beginnings of Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture
Mycenaean Influences 1600-1100 BCE
Considered the first Greeks, the Mycenaeans had a lasting influence on later Greek art, architecture, and literature. A bronze historic period civilisation that extended through modern 24-hour interval southern Greece also as coastal regions of modern day Turkey, Italy, and Syria, Mycenaea was an elite warrior society dominated by palace states. Divided into three classes - the king's attendants, the common people, and slaves - each palace country was ruled by a king with armed forces, political, and religious authority. The society valorized heroic warriors and fabricated offerings to a pantheon of gods. In later Greek literature, including Homer'due south The Iliad and The Odyssey, the exploits of these warriors and gods engaged in the Trojan War had become legendary and, in fact, appropriated by later Greeks equally their founding myths.
Agriculture and trade were the economic engines driving Mycenaean expansion, and both activities were enhanced by the applied science genius of the Mycenaeans, as they constructed harbors, dams, aqueducts, drainage systems, bridges, and an extended network of roads that remained unrivaled until the Roman era. Innovative architects, they developed Cyclopean masonry, using large boulders, fit together without mortar, to create massive fortifications. The name for Cyclopean stonework came from the later Greeks, who believed that only the Cyclops, trigger-happy one-eyed giants of myth and legend, could have lifted the stones. To lighten the heavy load higher up gates and doorways, the Mycenaeans too invented the relieving triangle, a triangular space in a higher place the lintel that was left open up or filled with lighter materials.
The Mycenaeans commencement developed the acropolis, a fortress or citadel, congenital on a hill that characterized afterwards Greek cities. The king'southward palace, centered on a megaron, or round throne room with four columns, was decorated with vividly colored frescoes of marine life, boxing, processions, hunting, and gods and goddesses.
Scholars still fence how the Mycenaean civilization declined, and theories include invasions, internal disharmonize, and natural disasters. The era was followed past what has been called the Greek Dark Ages, though it is also known as the Homeric Age and the Geometric period. The term Homeric Age refers to Homer whose poems narrated the Trojan War and its aftermath. The term Geometric period refers to the era'southward style of vase painting, which primarily employed geometric motifs and patterns.
Greek Archaic Menses 776-480 BCE
The Archaic Period began in 776 BCE with the establishment of the Olympic Games. Greeks believed that the athletic games, which emphasized human achievement, ready them autonomously from "barbarian," not-Greek peoples. The Greeks' valorization of the Mycenaean era as a heroic gold age led them to idealize male athletes, and the male figure became ascendant subjects of Greek art. The Greeks felt that the male person nude showed not only the perfection and dazzler of the body merely also the dignity of character.
The Greeks developed a political and social structure based upon the polis, or metropolis-country. While Argus was a leading center of trade in the early on role of the era, Sparta, a urban center state that emphasized military prowess, grew to be the most powerful. Athens became the pioneering forcefulness in the art, civilization, science, and philosophy that became the ground of Western civilization. Though the era was dominated by the rule of tyrants, Solon, a philosopher rex, became the ruler of Athens effectually 594 BCE and established notable reforms. He created the Council of Four Hundred, a body that could question and challenge the rex, ended the exercise of putting people into slavery for their debts, and established a ruling course based on wealth rather than descent. Extensive body of water-faring trade drove the Greek economy, and Athens, along with other urban center-states, began establishing trading posts and settlements throughout the Mediterranean. Every bit a result of these forays, Greek cultural values spread to other cultures, including the Etruscans in southern Italy, influencing and co-mingling with them.
Figurative sculpture was the greatest creative innovation of the Primitive period as it emphasized realistic, though arcadian, figures. Influenced by Egyptian sculpture, the Greeks transformed the frontal poses of pharaohs and other notables into works known as kouros (young men) and kore (immature women), life-sized sculptures that were first developed in the Cyclades islands in the 7th century BCE. During the tardily Archaic flow, individual sculptors, including Antenor, Kritios, and Nesiotes, were celebrated, and their names preserved for posterity.
The belatedly Primitive menstruation was marked past new reforms, as the Athenian lawgiver Cleisthenes established new policies in 508BC that led to him being dubbed "the father of democracy." To celebrate the end of the rule of tyrants, he deputed the sculptore Antenor to complete a bronze statue, The Tyrannicides (510 BCE), depicting Harmonides and Aristogeion, who had assassinated Hipparchos, the blood brother of the tyrant Hippias, in 514 BCE. Though the two were executed for the law-breaking, they became symbols of the movement toward commonwealth that led to the expulsion of Hippias four years later and were considered to be the only contemporary Greeks worthy plenty to exist granted immortality in art. The committee of Antenor'southward piece of work was the first public funded art committee, and the subject was so resonant that, when Antenor's work was taken during the 483 BCE Western farsi invasion, Kritios was commissioned to create a replacement. Kritios's The Tyrannicides (c. 477 BCE) developed what has been called the severe style, or the Early on Classical way, equally he depicted realistic movement and individual characterization, which had a great influence on subsequent sculpture.
Classical Hellenic republic 480-323 BCE
Classical Hellenic republic, also known as the Gold Age, became fundamental both to the later Roman Empire and western civilization, in philosophy, politics, literature, science, fine art, and architecture. The great Greek historian of the era Thucydides, called the general and populist statesman Pericles "Athens's outset denizen." Equal rights for citizens (which only meant adult Greek males), democracy, freedom of speech, and a club ruled past an associates of citizens defined Greek authorities. Pericles launched the rebuilding of the Parthenon (447-432 BCE) in Athens, a projection overseen by his friend, the sculptor Phidias, and established Athens every bit the almost powerful city country, expanding its influence throughout the Mediterranean region.
The Classical era too saw the institution of Western philosophy in the teachings and writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The philosophy of Socrates survived through Plato'south written accounts of his instructor's dialogues, and Plato went on to found the Academy in Athens effectually 387 BCE, an early prototype of all later academies and universities. Many leaders studied at the Academy, including most notably Aristotle, and it became a leading force known throughout the earth for the importance of scientific and philosophical research based upon the belief in reason and knowledge. While their philosophies diverged in fundamental respects, Plato and Aristotle concurred in seeing art every bit an imitation of nature, aspiring to the cute.
Additionally, the emphasis on individuality resulted in a more personalized art, and individual artists, including Phidias, Praxiteles, and Myron, became celebrated. Funerary sculpture began depicting real people (instead of idealized types) with emotional expression, while at the same time, bronze works idealized the human grade, peculiarly the male nude. Praxiteles, though, pioneered the female person nude in his Aphrodite of Knidos (fourth century BCE), a piece of work that has been referenced time and time again in the ensuing centuries.
Hellenistic Greek 323-31 BCE
The expiry of Alexander the Keen in 323 BCE marked the outset of the Hellenistic menstruation. Having amassed a vast empire beyond Hellenic republic that included parts of Asia, North Africa, Europe and non having named a successor instigated a state of war between Alexander's generals for control of his empire, and local leaders jockeyed to regain control of their regions. Eventually, three generals agreed to a power-sharing relationship and carved the Greek empire into 3 dissimilar regions. While the mainland Greek cultural influence declined, Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in modern twenty-four hour period Syria became of import centers of Hellenistic culture. Many Greeks emigrated to other parts of the fractured empire, "Hellenizing the world," every bit art historian John Griffiths Pedley wrote.
Despite the splintering of the empire, slap-up wealth led to majestic patronage of the arts, particularly in sculpture, painting, and architecture. Alexander the Great's official sculptor had been Lysippus who, working in bronze after Alexander'southward death, created works that marked a transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic mode. Some of the almost famous works of Greek fine art, including the Venus de Milo (130-100 BCE) and the Winged Victory of Samothrace (200-190 BCE) were created in the era.
Architecture turned toward urban planning, equally cities created complex parks and theaters for leisure. Temples took on colossal proportions, and the architectural style employed the Corinthian order, the most decorative of Classical orders. Pergamon became a vital center of civilisation, known for its colossal complexes, every bit exemplified by in the Pergamon Chantry (c. 166-156 BCE) with its extensive and dramatic friezes. During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks gradually savage to the rule of the Roman Republic, as Rome conquered Macedonia in the Boxing of Corinth in 146 BCE. Upon his death in 133 BCE, King Attalus Iii left the Kingdom of Pergamon to the Romans. Though Greek rebellions followed, they were crushed in the following century.
Roman Republic 509 BCE - 26 CE
Rome began equally a metropolis-state ruled past kings, who were elected by the nobleman of the Roman Senate, then became a Commonwealth when Lucius Tarquinii Superbus, the last rex, was expelled in 509BC. Because his son had raped Lucretia, a married noblewoman, who took her own life, Tarquinii was deposed by her husband, her father, and Lucius Junius Brutus, Tarquinii'southward nephew. The story became both office of Roman history and a subject depicted in art throughout the following centuries.
With the kingship abolished, the Republic was established with a new organisation of government led by 2 consuls. As the patricians, the upper class who governed Rome, were ofttimes in conflict with the plebeians, or common people, an emphasis was put upon city planning, including flat buildings called insulae and public entertainments that featured gladiator fights and horse races to continue the people happy, a type of rule that the Roman poet Juvenal described as "bread and circuses." Cities were planned on a grid arrangement, while architecture and engineering projects were transformed by the development of concrete in the threerd century. Rome was primarily a military land, frequently at state of war with neighboring tribes in Italy at the beginning. Various military machine campaigns resulted in the conquest and destruction of Carthage, a Northward African kingdom, in three Punic wars, the conquest of the Macedonia and its eastern territories, and Hellenic republic in the twond century BCE resulted in geographically expansive empire.
Roman culture adopted many of the myths, gods, and heroic stories of the Greeks, while emphasizing their own tradition of the mas majorum, the way of the ancestors, a kind of contractual obligation with the gods and the founding fathers of Rome. Greek works, taken as spoils of war, were extensively copied and displayed in Roman homes and became a master influence upon Roman fine art and architecture. The rise of Julius Caesar, following his triumph over the Gauls in northern Europe, marked the end of the Commonwealth, as he was assassinated in 44 BCE by a number of senators in order to prevent him beingness alleged emperor. His death plunged the Republic into a civil state of war, fought by his former full general Marc Antony allied with Cleopatra, queen of Arab republic of egypt, confronting the forces of Pompeius and the forces of Caesar's great nephew and heir, Octavian.
Purple Rome 27 BCE - 393 CE
While the assassins may have staved off the crowning of Caesar every bit emperor, eventually an emperor was named. Imperial Rome begins with the crowning of Octavian as the start emperor, who came to be known as Augustus. In his near xl-five year reign, he transformed the metropolis, establishing public services, including the first police force strength, fire fighting forcefulness, postal organization, and municipal offices, while creating acquirement and taxation systems that were the blueprint for the Empire in the following centuries. He as well launched a new building program that included temples and notable public buildings, and he transformed the arts, commissioning works like the Augustus of Prima Porta (ist century CE) that depicted him as an ideal leader in a classical style that harkened back to Greece. He besides commissioned The Aeneid (29-xix BCE) an epic poem past the poet Virgil that defined Rome and became a canonical piece of work of Western literature. The verse form described the mythical founding of Rome, relating the journey of Aeneas, the son of Venus and Prince of Troy, who fled the Sack of Troy to arrive in Italy, where, fighting and defeating the Etruscan rulers, he founded Rome.
The Regal era was defined by the monumental grandeur of its architecture and its luxurious lifestyle, as wealthy residences were lavishly decorated with colorful frescoes, and the upper class, throughout the Empire, commissioned portraits. The Empire ended with the Sack of Rome in 393 CE, though by that fourth dimension, its power had already declined, due to increasingly arbitrary emperors, internal conflict, and rebellion in its provinces. The conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity and the moving of the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople in 313 CE established the rising ability of the Byzantine Empire.
Classical Greek and Roman Art and Compages: Concepts, Styles, and Trends
The Gold Ratio
The Greeks believed that truth and dazzler were closely associated, and noted philosophers understood beauty in largely mathematical terms. Socrates said, "Measure and proportion manifest themselves in all areas of beauty and virtue," and Aristotle advocated for the golden mean, or the middle way, that led to a virtuous and heroic life by avoiding extremes. For the Greeks, beauty derived from the combination of symmetry, harmony, and proportion. The golden ratio, a concept based on the proportions between two quantities, as defined by the mathematicians Pythagoras (half-dozenth century BCE) and Euclid (323-283 BCE), was idea to be the well-nigh beautiful proportion. The golden ratio indicates that the ratio betwixt two quantities is the same as the ratio between the larger of the two and their sum. The Parthenon (447-432 BCE) employed the golden ratio in its pattern and was fêted as the most perfect building imaginable. Because the artist Phidias oversaw the edifice of the temple, the gilded ratio became usually known past the Greek letter phi, in honor of Phidias. The golden ratio had a noted bear upon on subsequently artists and architects, influencing the Roman builder Vitruvius, whose principles informed the Renaissance, as seen in the work and theory of Leon Battista Alberti, and modernistic architects, including Le Corbusier.
Greek Architecture
Best known for its temples, using a rectangular design framed by colonnades open on all sides, Greek architecture emphasized formal unity. The edifice became a sculptural presence on a loftier colina, as art historian Nikolaus Pevsner wrote, "The plastic shape of the [Greek] temple ... placed earlier us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of whatsoever later building."
The Greeks adult the three orders - the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian - which became part of the key architectural vocabulary of Rome and subsequently much of Europe and the United states. Developed in different parts of Greece and at different times, the distinction between the orders is primarily based upon the differences between the columns themselves, their capitals, and the entablature above them. The Doric social club is the simplest, using smooth or fluted columns with circular capitals, while the entablature features add together a more complex decorative element higher up the simple columns. The Ionic column uses volutes, from the Latin give-and-take for ringlet, every bit a decorative element at the top of the capital, and the entablature is designed so that a narrative frieze extends the length of the building. The late Classical Corinthian order, named for the Greek city of Corinth, is the nigh decorative, using elaborately carved capitals with an acanthus leaf motif.
Originally, Greek temples were often congenital with wood, using a kind of post and beam structure, though stone and marble were increasingly employed. The first temple to be built entirely of marble was the Parthenon (447-432 BCE). Greek architecture also pioneered the amphitheater, the agora, or public square surrounded by a pillar, and the stadium.The Romans appropriated these architectural structures, creating monumental amphitheaters and revisioning the agora every bit the Roman forum, an extensive public square that featured hundreds of marble columns.
Roman Architecture and Engineering
Roman architecture was so innovative that information technology has been chosen the Roman Architectural Revolution, or the Physical Revolution, based on its invention of physical in the 3rd century. The technological evolution meant that the grade of a structure was no longer constrained by the limitations of brick and masonry and led to the innovative employment of the arch, the barrel vault, the groin vault, and the dome. These new innovations ushered in an age of awe-inspiring architecture, equally seen in the Colosseum and civil engineering science projects, including aqueducts, apartment buildings, and bridges. The Romans, as architectural historian D.S. Robertson wrote, "were the starting time builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, fully to capeesh the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome." They pioneered the segmental arch - essentially a flattened curvation, used in bridges and private residences - the extended arch, and the triumphal curvation, which celebrated the emperors' keen victories. Only information technology was their employment of the dome that had the nigh significant impact on Western civilization. Though influenced by the Etruscans, particularly in their apply of arches and hydraulic techniques, and the Greeks, Romans notwithstanding used columns, porticos, and entablatures even when technological innovations no longer required them structurally.
Though little is known of his life beyond his work equally a military engineer for Emperor Augustus, Vitruvius was the most noted Roman builder and engineer, and his De architectura (On Architecture) (30-15 BCE), known as Ten Books on Architecture, became a canonical work of subsequent architectural theory and practice. His treatise was defended to Emperor Augustus, his patron, and was meant to be a guide for all manner of building projects. His piece of work described boondocks planning, residential, public, and religious edifice, equally well as building materials, water supplies and aqueducts, and Roman machinery, such as hoists, cranes, and siege machines. Equally he wrote, "Compages is a scientific discipline arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning." His belief that a structure should accept the qualities of stability, unity, and beauty became known as the Vitruvian Triad. He saw architecture imitating nature in its proportionality and ascribed this proportionality to the human form every bit well, famously expressed later in Leonardo da Vinci'southward Vitruvian Human being (1490).
Vase Painting
Vase painting was a noted element of Greek art and provides the best case of how Greek painting focused primarily on portraying the human form and evolved toward increased realism. The primeval manner was geometric, employing patterns influenced past Mycenaean art, but quickly turned to the human effigy, similarly stylized. An "Orientalizing" period followed, equally Eastern motifs, including the sphinx, were adopted to exist followed by a black figure way, named for its colour scheme, that used more accurate detail and figurative modeling.
The Classical era adult the reddish figure manner of vase painting, which created the figures by strongly outlining them against a black background and allowed for their details to exist painted rather than incised into the dirt. Equally a issue, variations of color and of line thickness allowed for more curving and rounded shapes than were present in the Geometric style of vases.
Greek and Roman Painting
While Classical Fine art is noted primarily for its sculpture and architecture, Greek and Roman artists fabricated innovations in both fresco and panel painting. Most of what is known of Greek painting is ascertained primarily from painting on pottery and from Etruscan and later Roman murals, which are known to have been influenced by Greek artists and, sometimes, painted past them, as the Greeks established settlements in Southern Italy where they introduced their fine art. Hades Abducting Persephone (4 th century BCE) in the Vergina tombs in Macedonia is a rare example of a Classical era mural painting and shows an increased realism that parallels their experiments in sculpture.
Roman panel and fresco paintings survived in greater number than Greek paintings. The 1748 earthworks of Pompeii, a Roman metropolis that was buried almost instantaneously in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, led to the groundbreaking discovery of many relatively well-preserved frescos in noted Roman residences, including the House of the Vettii, the Villa of Mysteries, and the House of the Tragic Poet. Fresco paintings brought a sense of light, space, and color into interiors that, lacking windows, were oft dark and cramped. Preferred subjects included mythological accounts, tales from the Trojan state of war, historical accounts, religious rituals, erotic scenes, landscapes, and still lifes. Additionally, walls were sometimes painted to resemble brightly colored marble or alabaster panels, enhanced by illusionary beams or cornices.
Greek Sculpture
Influenced by the Egyptians, the Greeks in the Archaic catamenia began making life-sized sculptures, but rather than portraying pharaohs or gods, Greek sculpture largely consisted of kouroi, of which in that location were three types - the nude swain, the dressed and continuing young woman, and a seated woman. Famous for their smiling expressions, dubbed the "Primitive smile", the sculptures were used equally funerary monuments, public memorials, and votive statues. They represented an ideal type rather than a particular individual and emphasized realistic anatomy and homo movement, every bit New York Times fine art critic Alastair Macaulay wrote, "The kouros is timeless; he might be about to exhale, motility, speak."
In the late Archaic flow a few sculptors like Kritios became known and celebrated, a trend which became even more predominant during the Classical era, as Phidias, Polycleitus, Myron, Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus became legendary. Myron's Discobolos, or "discus thrower," (460-450 BCE) was credited as being the first work to capture a moment of harmony and balance. Increasingly, artists focused their attending on a mathematical system of proportions that Polycleitus described in his Catechism of Polycleitus and emphasized symmetry as a combination of rest and rhythm. Polycleitus created Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) (c.440 BCE) to illustrate his theory that "perfection comes about trivial by little through many numbers."
Most of the original Greek bronzes take been lost, every bit the value of the material led to their oftentimes beingness melted down and reused, particularly in the early on Christian era where they were viewed as pagan idols. A few notable examples have survived, such as the Charioteer of Delphi (478 or 474 BCE), which was found in 1896 in a temple buried in a rockslide. Other works, including the Raice bronzes (460-450 BCE) and the Artemison Bronze (c.460) were retrieved from the sea. The primeval Greek bronzes were sphyrelaton, or hammered sheets, attached together with rivets; yet, by the late Archaic period, around 500 BCE, the Greeks began employing the lost-wax method. To brand large-calibration sculptures, the works were cast in diverse pieces and then welded together, with copper inlaid to create the optics, teeth, lips, fingernails, and nipples to requite the statue a lifelike appearance.
Along with sculpture in the round, the Greeks employed relief sculpture to decorate the entablatures of temples with extensive friezes that often depicted mythological and legendary battles and mythological scenes. Created past Phidias, the Parthenon Marbles (c. 447-438 BCE), too known as the Elgin Marbles, are the near famous examples. Created on metopes, or panels, the relief sculptures decorated the frieze lining the interior chamber of the temple and, renowned for their realism and dynamic movement, had a noted influence upon later artists, including Auguste Rodin.
The Greeks also made colossal chryselephantine, or ivory and aureate statues, get-go in the Archaic period. Phidias was acclaimed for both his Athena Parthenos (447 BCE), a almost forty foot tall statue that resided in the Parthenon on the Acropolis, and his Statue of Zeus at Olympia (435 BCE) that was xl three feet tall and considered one of the 7 Wonders of the Ancient World. Both statues used a wooden structure with gold panels and ivory limbs attached in a kind of modular structure. They were not just symbols of the gods but also symbols of Greek wealth and ability. Both works were destroyed, but small-scale copies of Athena exist, and representations on coins and descriptions in Greek texts survive.
Roman Portraiture
Many Roman sculptures were copies of Greek originals, only their own contribution to Classical sculpture came in the form of portraiture. Emphasizing a realistic approach, the Romans felt that depicting notable men as they were, warts and all, was a sign of character. In contrast, in Imperial Rome, portraiture turned to idealistic treatments, as emperors, outset with Augustus, wanted to create a political image, showing them every bit heirs of both classical Hellenic republic and Roman history. As a effect, a Greco-Roman style developed in sculptural relief as seen in the Augustan Ara Pacis (13 BCE).
The Romans likewise revived a method of Greek glass painting to use for portraiture. Nigh of the images were the size of medallions or roundels cut out of a drinking vessel. Wealthy Romans would have drinking cups made with a aureate glass portrait of themselves and, following the owner's death, the portrait would be cut out in a circular shape and cemented into the catacomb walls as a tomb marker.
Some of the most famous painted Roman portraits are the Fayum mummy portraits, named for the place in Egypt where they were institute, that covered the faces of the mummified dead. Preserved by Egypt's barren climate, the portraits constitute the largest surviving group of portrait console painting from the Classical era. Near of the mummy portraits were created between the 1st century BCE and the threerd century CE and reflect the intertwining of Roman and Egyptian traditions, during the fourth dimension when Arab republic of egypt was nether Rome'due south dominion. Though idealized, the paintings display remarkably individualistic and naturalistic characteristics.
Later on Developments - After Classical Greek and Roman Art and Compages
The influence of Classical Fine art and architecture cannot be overestimated, as it extends to all fine art movements and periods of Western art. While Roman architecture and Greek art influenced the Romanesque and Byzantine periods, the influence of Classical Art became dominant in the Italian Renaissance, founded upon a revival of interest in Classical principles, philosophy, and aesthetic ideals. The Parthenon and the Pantheon also equally the writings of Vitruvius informed the architectural theories and practice of Leon Battista Alberti and Palladio and designs into the mod era, including those of Le Corbusier.
Greek sculpture influenced Renaissance artists Michelangelo, Albrecht Dürer, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and the later Baroque artists, including Bernini. The discoveries at Pompeii informed the artful theories of Johann Joachim Winckelmann in the 18th century and the development of Neoclassicism, as seen in Antonio Canova'south sculptures. The modern sculptor Auguste Rodin was influenced primarily by the Parthenon Marbles, of which he wrote, they "had...a rejuvenating influence, and those sensations acquired me to follow Nature all the more closely in my studies." Artists from the Futurist Umberto Boccioni, the Surrealist Salvador Dalí, and the multifaceted Pablo Picasso, to, later, Yves Klein, Sanford Biggers, and Banksy all cited Greek art as an influence.
Classical Art has likewise influenced other art forms, equally both the choreography of Isidore Cunningham and Merce Cunningham were influenced by the Parthenon Marbles, and the first fashion garment featured in the Museum of Modern Art in 2003 was Henriette Negrin and Mariano Fortuny y Madrazos' Delphos Gown (1907) a silk wearing apparel inspired by the Charioteer Delphi (c. 500 BCE) which had been discovered a decade before. The legends, gods, philosophies and art of the Classical era became essential elements of subsequent Western civilisation and consciousness.
Source: https://www.theartstory.org/movement/classical-greek-and-roman-art/history-and-concepts/